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William I of the Netherlands
}} |coronation= 30 March 1814 |cor-type= Inauguration |predecessor= Himself |successor= Charles II |succession1= Prince of Orange-Nassau |reign1= 9 April 1806 – 16 March 1815 |predecessor1= William V |successor1= Charles II |succession2= King of Poland Grand Duke of Lithuania |reign2= 19 February 1817 – 27 January 1839 |coronation2= 27 May 1817, Warsaw |predecessor2=Frederick Augustus I |successor2=Jan IV Joseph |succession3= President of the Dutch East Indies |reign-type3= In office |reign3= 5 September 1826 – |predecessor3= New title |successor3= Charles II |full name= Charles Philip Johan Felix |spouse= Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia Countess Henrietta d'Oultremont de Wégimont (morganatic) |issue= Charles II of the Netherlands Friedrich, Prince of Schwarzenberg John IV Joseph, King of the Polish Prince Frederick Princess Pauline Marianne, Princess Albert of Prussia |house= Habsburg-Lorraine |father= Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor |mother= Maria Luisa of Spain |birth_date= |birth_place= Vienna, Austria, Holy Roman Empire |death_date= |death_place= Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia |burial_place= Imperial Crypt, Vienna, Archduchy of Austria |occupation=Military (Calvary) |religion= Dutch Reformed Church prev. Roman Catholicism |signature= |}} Charles I (Charles Philipp; ; ; ; ; 24 August 1775 – 12 December 1843), known as "the Peace-King" , was an Austrian field marshal , first King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 16 March 1815 until his voluntarily abdication in 1840 and he was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1817 to his abdication in 1839. He was the youngest field marshals to command the Austrian forces. He was born in Vienna in the Archduchy of Austria to Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and Maria Luisa of Spain. He was the 12th ancestor descendant of Emperor Charles VII but he could be the next ruler of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire. To his surprised, he was an older brother to Emperor Francis II, who had made as Emperor in the Holy Roman Empire, later Emperor of Austria. He also witness the French Revolutionary Wars by the overthrow of King Louis XVI in 1793 and thinking he was going to military. During his military service at age nine, the youngest person who in the military by the permission of his uncle, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. He was at given the rank of field marshal of the Austrian Army during the Napoleonic Wars. He was wounded two times in the stomach and 2 times in the legs and one in the arm at the battle of Landshut in 1809. By the death of his father in 1813, he was succeeded him as Prince of Schwarzenberg, a few weeks later that he was victory at the Battle of Leipzig, by the following of Napoleon's abdication in 1814 and went to exile. When Napoleon returned to power in 1815, Emperor Francis I ordered Karl Philipp that he will defeated Napoleon for good, he thought the battles of Quatre Bras. At the battle in Waterloo, the defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French, and marked the end of his Hundred Days return from exile. At the time, Charles Philipp returned to Netherlands where he was Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands in 1813 until 1815. During his reign in Germany, he was ruler (as Fürst) of the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda from 1803 until 1806 and of the Principality of Orange-Nassau in the year 1806 and from 1813 until 1815. In 1813 he proclaimed himself 'Sovereign Prince' of the "United Netherlands." He proclaimed himself King of the Netherlands and Duke of Luxembourg on 16 March 1815. In the same year on 9 June William I became also the Grand Duke of Luxembourg and after 1839 he was furthermore the Duke of Limburg. He is the role of the three major wars, the Forty Years' War, Belgian Revolution, and War of the Ukrainian Succession. He was one of the most popular monarch in Polish since John III Sobieski. His first loss is the Belgian Revolution in 1830 when the Eupropean revolutions of 1830, which King Leopold I accessed the Belgium throne. Though always at war, Charles was a lover of peace. "Not greedy of territory," wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1836, "but most greedy of peace and quiet." Charles abdicated in 1839. Prince of Orange passed to Charles's older brother King James Casimir I of Poland, whereas the Kingdom of the Netherlands was inherited by his elder son Charles. The two empires would remain allies until the 20th century. Charles was weak and having last illness, but after 25 years of energetic rule he was physically exhausted and sought the peace of a city of Berlin, Prussia where he died aged 68, after suffering a Stomach cancer. He was buried in Imperial Crypt in Vienna. Early life Youth Karl Philipp was born 24 August 1775 in Vienna, was a son of Emperor Leopold II (1747–1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain (1745–1792), daughter of Charles III of Spain. His brother, Prince Felix Philipp (1980–1858) was born few years earlier then Charles Philipp. Charles Philipp was honest and caring person. He was the 12th descendant of Emperor Charles VII but he could be the next ruler of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, but he reign any rights to the Imperial throne. But he declined. Prince Charles, as members of his family called him. His parents, Emperor Leopold II and Princess Wilhelmina, already had two children. At the young age, his father, Johann Nepomuk Anton died on on February 1805 and Karl Philipp succeeded his father as Prince of Schwarzenberg during the war against French Empire. Childhood Even as a young boy, he was bright and showed much promise in the military field; General Prince Charles Stamford, mathematician Leonhard Euler and historian Herman Tollius were among his tutors. After military training in Brunswick, where his cousin once removed was reigning duke, Prince Charles began active military service in 1795 when the States-General granted him the rank of lieutenant-general of the cavalry and grand master of artillery. In 1793, he was called to war when the Republic had to be defended against the French. He was an inspiring leader and was usually in the forefront. Prince Frederick took upon himself the defense of the northwestern part of Brabant. Later, he served under his older brother at Veurne (Furnes) and Menin (Menen). While fighting in the latter battle at Flemish Wervik, on 12/13 September 1793, Charles suffered an injury when he was shot in the shoulder; this was an injury he never fully recovered from. In 1794, he was appointed general of the cavalry. When his brother, Francis succeeded the Imperial throne in 1792, Charles Philipp travel to his brother's coronation. After the coronation, he travel to the Netherlands after he become Prince of Orange. Education Prince Charles was tutored by the Countess of Genlis with Louis Philippe (future first President of France), beginning in 1782. She instilled in him a fondness for liberal thought; it is probably during this period that Louis Philippe picked up his slightly Voltairean brand of Catholicism. When Louis Philippe's grandfather died in 1785, his father succeeded him as Duke of Orléans and Louis Philippe succeeded his father as Duke of Chartres. In 1788, with the Revolution looming, the young Louis Philippe showed his liberal sympathies when he helped break down the door of a prison cell in Mont Saint-Michel, during a visit there with the Countess of Genlis. From October 1788 to October 1791, the Palais Royal was a meeting-place for the revolutionaries. Military service .]] He entered the imperial cavalry in in 1798 under Lacy and Loudon against the Turks, distinguished himself by his bravery, and became a major in few weeks. In the French campaign of 1793, he served in the advanced guard of the army commanded by Prince Josias of Coburg, and at Le Cateau-Cambrésis in 1794 his impetuous charge at the head of his regiment, vigorously supported by twelve British squadrons, broke a whole corps of the French, killed and wounded 3,000 men, and brought off 32 of the enemy's guns. He was immediately decorated with the Knight's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa. Napoleonic Wars After taking part in the battles of Amberg and Würzburg in 1796 he was raised to the rank of General-Major, and in 1799 he was promoted to Feldmarschall-Leutnant. At the Battle of Hohenlinden he led a division in the right wing, and was almost the only Austrian general who emerged from that debacle with distinction. During the retreat, his promptitude and courage saved the right wing of the Austrian army from destruction, and he was afterwards entrusted by the Archduke Charles of Austria with the command of the rearguard. In 1804, Prince Karl Philipp was created Fürst zu Schwarzenberg in a title identical to, but separate from, that of his brother, Joseph, Prince of Schwarzenberg. In the war of 1805 he held command of a division under Mack, and when Ulm was surrounded by Napoleon in October he was one of the brave band of cavalry, under the Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este, which cut its way through the hostile lines. In the same year, he received the Commander's Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa and in 1809 he was awarded the Order of the Golden Fleece. In 1806-1809, Schwarzenberg served as the Austrian ambassador to Russia. Schwarzenburg returned in time to Austria to take part in the Battle of Wagram as another war against France had started, leading a cavalry division in the Reserve Corps. and was soon afterwards promoted General of Cavalry. After the peace of Vienna, he was sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage between Napoleon and the Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria. The prince gave a ball in honour of the bride on 1 July 1810, which ended in a fire that killed many of the guests, including his own sister-in-law. .]] Napoleon held Schwarzenberg in great esteem, and it was at his request that the prince took command of the Austrian auxiliary corps in the Russian campaign of 1812. The Austrian general won some minor victories against the Russians at Gorodetschna and Wolkowisk. Afterwards, under instructions from Napoleon, he remained for some months inactive at Pultusk. Wounded at the Battle of Landshut Prince Charles Philipp was ordered by his brother, Emperor Francis I/II took place on 21 April 1809 with his fellow General Johann von Hiller to see Emperor Napoleon I on the battlefield. Hiller realized that he would be unable to hold his position for long, as Masséna was trying to block him from escaping. At this point his cavalry were forced back by Lannes’s troops and the Austrians were pushed back into Landshut. The French now quickly seized the northern bridge over the river, and the Austrians withdrew into the main part of the town to defend the southern bridge. The Austrians tried to set fire to this second bridge, but owing to the rainfall over the previous days, this was only partially successful. However the Austrians did manage to close the gates at the end of the bridge. The French were now faced with attacking across the smoldering bridge. Napoleon ordered his aide General Georges Mouton (later comte de Lobau) to assume command of the attacking grenadiers of the 17th Line. In the face of heavy Austrian fire from all sides, Mouton ordered his men to attack without firing their muskets. The grenadiers reached the gateway and broke it down, allowing Bavarian troops to quickly reinforce the breach. During the battle, Prince Charles Philipp was shot and stabbed five times (stomach and legs), leaving the young Austrian prince limp for rest of his life. The wounded Charles Philipp was carried on his horse and escape form battle. With the defeated Austrian Army at the Battle of Landshut, his brother, Archduke Charles won the battle in Aspern-Essling, the fellow month for revenge on Prince Charles Philipp's wounded and defeated form the the battle before. While he was covering form his wounds in his brother's palace in Vienna, was nicknamed and was titled, "Archduke-Prince" during his military career. Field marshal of the Austrian Army In 1813, when Austria, after many hesitations, took the side of the allies against Napoleon, Schwarzenberg, recently promoted to Feldmarschall, was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied Grand Army of Bohemia. As such, he was the senior of the allied generals who conducted the campaign of 1813-1814. Under his command, the Allied army was mauled by Napoleon at the Battle of Dresden on 26–27 August and driven back into Bohemia. However, his army defeated pursuing French forces at the Second Battle of Kulm. Returning to the fray, he led the Allied army north again and played a major role in Napoleon's decisive defeat at the Battle of Leipzig on 16–18 October. During the invasion of France in 1814, he beat a French force at the Battle of Bar-sur-Aube in late February. He repelled an attack by Napoleon in the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube on 20–21 March and overcame the last barrier before Paris by winning the Battle of Fère-Champenoise on 25 March. His capture of the French capital on 31 March after the Battle of Paris resulted in the overthrow of Napoleon. Hundred Days and Napoleon's abdicated The next year, during the Hundred Days when Napoleon escaped from Elba and regained the French throne, in the hostilities that followed Schwarzenberg commanded the Army of the Upper Rhine (an Austrian-allied army of about a quarter of a million men). It is the fashion to accuse Schwarzenberg of timidity and over-caution, and his operations can easily be made to appear in that colour when contrasted with those of his principal subordinate, the fiery Blücher. Critics often forget that Schwarzenberg was an Austrian general, that his army was practically the whole force that Austria could put into the field in Central Europe, and was therefore not lightly to be risked, and that the motives of his apparent pusillanimity should be sought in the political archives of Vienna rather than in the text-books of strategical theory. Prince of Orange King Charles I's uncle were the last stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange of the Dutch Republic, and his wife Wilhelmina of Prussia. Until 1806, Charles was formally known as Charles I, Prince of Orange-Nassau, and between 1806 and 1813 also as Prince of Orange. In Berlin on 1 October 1791, Charles married his first cousin (Frederica Louisa) Wilhelmina, born in Potsdam. She was the daughter of King Frederick William II of Prussia. After Wilhelmina died in 1837, Charles married Countess Henriette d'Oultremont de Wégimont (Maastricht, 28 February 1792 – Schloss Rahe, 26 October 1864), created Countess of Nassau, on 17 February 1841, also in Berlin. Exile Soon after his departure to Britain the Hereditary Prince went back to the Continent, where his brother was assembling former members of the States Army in Osnabrück for a planned foray into the Batavian Republic in the Summer of 1795. However, the neutral Prussian government forbade this. In 1799, William landed in the current North Holland as part of an Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland. The Hereditary Prince was instrumental in fomenting a mutiny on the Batavian naval squadron in the Vlieter, resulting in the surrender of the ships without a fight to the Royal Navy, which accepted the surrender in the name of the stadtholder. The local Dutch population, however, was not pleased with the arrival of the prince. One local Orangist was even executed. The hoped-for popular uprising failed to materialise. After several minor battles the Hereditary Prince was forced to leave the country again after the Convention of Alkmaar. The mutineers of the Batavian fleet, with their ships,and a number of deserters from the Batavian army accompanied the retreating British troops to Britain. There William formed the King's Dutch Brigade with these troops, a military unit in British service, that swore oaths of allegiance to the British King, but also to the States General, defunct since 1795, "whenever those would be reconstituted." This brigade trained on the Isle of Wight in 1800 and was eventually used by the British in Ireland. When peace was concluded between Great Britain and the French Republic under First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte the Orange exiles were at their nadir. The Dutch Brigade was dissolved on 12 July 1802. Many members of the brigade went home to the Batavian Republic, thanks to an amnesty. The surrendered ships of the Batavian navy were not returned, due to an agreement between the stadtholder and the British government of 11 March 1800. Instead the stadtholder was allowed to sell them to the Royal Navy for an appreciable sum. The stadtholder, feeling betrayed by the British, left for Germany. The Hereditary Prince, having a more flexible mind, went to visit Napoleon at St. Cloud in 1802. He apparently charmed the First Consul, and was charmed by him. Napoleon raised hopes for William that he might have an important role in a reformed Batavian Republic. Meanwhile, William's brother-in-law Frederick William III of Prussia, neutral at the time, promoted a Franco-Prussian convention of 23 May 1802, in addition to the Treaty of Amiens, that gave the House of Orange a few abbatial domains in Germany, that were combined to the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda by way of indemnification for its losses in the Batavian Republic. The stadtholder gave this principality immediately to his son. When Napoleon invaded Germany in 1806 and war broke out between the French Empire and Prussia, William supported his Prussian relatives, though he was nominally a French vassal. He received command of a Prussian division which took part in the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt. The Prussians lost that battle and William was forced to surrender his troops rather ignominiously at Erfurt the day after the battle. He was made a prisoner of war, but was paroled soon. Napoleon punished him for his betrayal, however, by taking away his principality. As a parolee, William was not allowed to take part in the hostilities anymore. After the Peace of Tilsit William received a pension from France in compensation. In the same year, 1806, his father, the Prince of Orange died, and William not only inherited the title, but also his father's claims on the inheritance embodied in the Nassau lands. This would become important a few years later, when developments in Germany coincided to make William the Fürst (Prince) of a diverse assembly of Nassau lands that had belonged to other branches of the House of Nassau. But before this came about, in 1809 tensions between Austria and France became intense. William did not hesitate to join the Austrian army as a Feldmarschalleutnant (major-general) in May 1809 As a member of the staff of the Austrian supreme commander, Archduke Charles he took part in the Battle of Wagram, where he was wounded in the leg. Tsar Alexander I of Russia played a central role in the restoration of the Netherlands. Prince William VI (as he was now known), who had been living in exile in Prussia, met with Alexander I in March 1813. Alexander promised to support William and help restore an independent Netherlands with William as king. Russian troops in the Netherlands participated with their Prussian allies in restoring the dynasty. Dynastic considerations of marriage between the royal houses of Great Britain and the Netherlands, assured British approval. Sovereign Prince on 30 November 1813]] on 30 March 1814]] After Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig (October 1813), the French troops retreated to France from all over Europe. The Netherlands had been annexed to the French Empire by Napoleon in 1810. But now city after city was evacuated by the French occupation troops. In ensueing the power vacuum a number of former Orangist politicians and former Patriots formed a provisional government in November 1813. Although a large number of the members of the provisional government had helped drive out William V 18 years earlier, it was taken for granted that his son would have to head any new regime. They also agreed it would be better in the long term for the Dutch to restore him themselves, rather than have the Great Powers impose him on the country. The Dutch population were pleased with the departure of the French, who had ruined the Dutch economy, and this time welcomed the prince. After having been invited by the Driemanschap (Triumvirate) of 1813, on 30 November 1813 William disembarked from and landed at Scheveningen beach, only a few yards from the place where he had left the country with his father 18 years before, and on 6 December the provisional government offered him the title of King. William refused, instead proclaiming himself "Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands". He also wanted the rights of the people to be guaranteed by "a wise constitution". The constitution offered William extensive (almost absolute) powers. Ministers were only responsible to him, while a unicameral parliament (the States General) exercised only limited power. He was inaugurated as sovereign prince in the New Church in Amsterdam on 30 March 1814. In August 1814, he was appointed Governor-General of the former Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège (more or less modern-day Belgium) by the Allied Powers who occupied that country, ruling them on behalf of Prussia. He was also made Grand Duke of Luxembourg, having received that territory in return for trading his hereditary German lands to Prussia and the Duke of Nassau. The Great Powers had already agreed via the secret Eight Articles of London to unite the Low Countries into a single kingdom. It was believed that a united country on the North Sea would help keep France in check. With the de facto addition of the Austrian Netherlands and Luxembourg to his realm, William had fulfilled his family's three-century dream of uniting the Low Countries. Reign in the Netherlands Internal polices Feeling threatened by Napoleon, who had escaped from Elba, William proclaimed the Netherlands a kingdom on 16 March 1815 at the urging of the powers gathered at the Congress of Vienna. His son, the future king Charles II, fought as a commander at the Battle of Waterloo. After Napoleon had been sent into exile, Charles adopted a new constitution which included many features of the old constitution, such as extensive royal powers. He was formally confirmed as hereditary ruler of what was known as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands at the Congress of Vienna. He was the 876th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Spain and the 648th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1814. Principal changes The States General was divided into two chambers. The Eerste Kamer (First Chamber or Senate or House of Lords) was appointed by the King. The Tweede Kamer (Second Chamber or House of Representatives or House of Commons) was elected by the Provincial States, which were in turn chosen by census suffrage. The 110 seats were divided equally between the North and the South, although the population of the North (2 million) was significantly less than that of the South (3.5 million). The States General's primary function was to approve the King's laws and decrees. The constitution contained many present-day Dutch political institutions; however, their functions and composition have changed greatly over the years. The constitution was accepted in the North, but not in the South. The under-representation of the South was one of the causes of the Belgian Revolution. Referendum turnout was low, in the Southern provinces, but William interpreted all abstentions to be yes votes. He prepared a lavish inauguration for himself in Brussels, where he gave the people copper coins (leading to his first nickname, the Copper King). The spearhead of King William's policies was economic progress. As he founded many trade institutions, his second nickname was the King-Merchant. In 1822, he founded the Algemeene Nederlandsche Maatschappij ter Begunstiging van de Volksvlijt, which would become one of the most important institutions of Belgium after its independence. Industry flourished, especially in the South. In 1817, he also founded three universities in the Southern provinces, such as a new University of Leuven, the University of Ghent and the University of Liège. The Northern provinces, meanwhile, were the centre of trade. This, in combination with the colonies (Dutch East Indies, Surinam, Curaçao and Dependencies, and the Dutch Gold Coast) created great wealth for the Kingdom. However, the money flowed into the hands of Dutch directors. Only a few Belgians managed to profit from the economic growth. Feelings of economic inequity were another cause of the Belgian uprising. William was also determined to create a unified people, even though the north and the south had drifted far apart culturally and economically since the south was reconquered by Spain after the Act of Abjuration of 1581. The North was commercial, Protestant and entirely Dutch-speaking; the south was industrial, Roman Catholic and divided between Dutch and French-speakers. Officially, a separation of church and state existed in the kingdom. However, William himself was a strong supporter of the Reformed Church. This led to resentment among the people in the mostly Catholic south. William had also devised controversial language and school policies. Dutch was imposed as the official language in (the Dutch-speaking region of) Flanders; this angered French-speaking aristocrats and industrial workers. Schools throughout the Kingdom were required to instruct students in the Reformed faith and the Dutch language. Many in the South feared that the King sought to extinguish Catholicism and the French language. Belgian uprising In August 1830 Daniel Auber's opera La muette de Portici, about the repression of Neapolitans, was staged in Brussels. Performances of this show seemed to crystallize a sense of nationalism and "Hollandophobia" in Brussels, and spread to the rest of the South. Rioting ensued, chiefly aimed at the kingdom's unpopular justice minister, Cornelis Felix van Maanen, who lived in Brussels. An infuriated William responded by sending troops to repress the riots. However, the riots had spread to other Southern cities. The riots quickly became popular uprisings. Soon an independent state of Belgium was proclaimed. The next year, William sent his sons William, the Prince of Orange, and Prince Frederick to invade the new state. Although initially victorious in this Ten Days' Campaign, the Dutch army was forced to retreat after the threat of French intervention. Some support for the Orange dynasty (chiefly among Flemings) persisted for years but the Dutch never regained control over Belgium. William nevertheless continued the war for eight years. His economic successes became overshadowed by a perceived mismanagement of the war effort. High costs of the war came to burden the Dutch economy, fueling public resentment. In 1839, William was forced to end the war. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was dissolved by the Treaty of London (1839) and the northern part continued as the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It was not renamed, however, as the "United"-prefix had never been part of its official name, but rather was retrospectively added by historians for descriptive purposes (cf. Weimar Republic). Constitutional changes ]] Constitutional changes were initiated in 1840 because the terms which involved the United Kingdom of the Netherlands had to be removed. These constitutional changes also included the introduction of judicial ministerial responsibility. Although the policies remained uncontrolled by parliament, the prerogative was controllable now. The very conservative William could not live with these constitutional changes. Forty Years' War and Polices After Louis, Grand Duke of Livonia retired as "Regent of Poland" on 1804. His younger brother wants Casimir to toke over Louis' place. The Crown Prince Casimir agreed, to protect, Regent and Heir to the Polish throne. In 1824 and 1833, the Crown Prince was briefly Viceroy of Norway. In 1838 the king began to suspect his son of plotting with the Liberal politicians to bring about a change of ministry, or even his own abdication. If Oscar did not actively assist the Opposition on this occasion, his disapprobation of his father's despotic behaviour was notorious, though he avoided an actual rupture. Yet his liberalism was of the most cautious and moderate character, as the Opposition, shortly after his accession (8 March 1844), discovered to their great chagrin. He would not hear of any radical reform of the cumbrous and obsolete Constitution of 1809. But one of his earliest measures was to establish freedom of the press. He also passed the first law towards gender equality in Sweden when he in 1845 declared that brothers and sisters should have equal inheritance, unless there was a will. On March of 1844, his brother, Charles died and favor Casimir, to the Swedish-Norwegian throne. But he wasn't Crown Prince to the Polish throne, as he nephew, Alexander Charles Radzilow took the title as Crown prince and Heir to the Polish throne, and he refused to be next in line to the throne. Casimir did not accept the Swedish-Norwegian throne until 15 July of same year, he accepted it as King of Sweden and Norway. right|thumb|[[Daguerreotype of Oscar I in 1844; this is the first known photograph of a Swedish monarch.]] He formally established equality between his two kingdoms by introducing new flags with the common Union badge of Norway and Sweden and a new coat of arms for the union. He also founded the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav on August 21, 1847, giving his Norwegian kingdom its own order of chivalry. Most of the legislation during Oscar I's reign aimed at improving the economic position of Sweden, and the Riksdag of the Estates, in its address to him in 1857, declared that he had promoted the material prosperity of the kingdom more than any of his predecessors. ch 40 pp 273-88 War of the Ukrainian Succession : Causes and build-up to the war After the Forty Years' War, Ukraine was ruled by the Turchynov Hetman Ivan IV. Ivan was a natural opponent of Napoleon and was allied with the Third Coalition against him. However, after defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the Treaty of Pressburg, Ferdinand was forced to cede Naples to the French in early 1806. Initially, Napoleon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte ruled Naples. Then in 1808, Joseph was made King of Spain and Napoleon installed his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, as King of Naples. Murat originally ruled Naples following the same legal and social system used in France, whilst still participating in Napoleon's campaigns. But following the disastrous Battle of Leipzig, Murat abandoned La Grande Armée to try to save his throne. As defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition loomed, Murat increasingly moved away from Napoleon, eventually signing a treaty with Austria in January 1814 and joined the Allied side. But as the Congress of Vienna progressed, Murat's position became less and less secure as there was growing support to restore Ferdinand to the throne. The most vocal of all Murat's opponents was the United Kingdom, which had never recognised Murat's claim to the throne and moreover had been guarding Ferdinand in Sicily, ensuring he retained the Sicilian throne. When Murat was informed of Napoleon's plan to escape from exile in Elba on 1 March 1815, Murat sided with him once more, and declared war on Austria as soon as he learned of Napoleon's return to France. Austrian counterattack and Battle of Tolentino The Battle of Occhiobello proved to be the turning point of the war. Murat's attempts to cross the River Po proved unsuccessful and after two days of heavy fighting, the Neapolitans fell back after suffering over 2,000 casualties. To make matters worse, the United Kingdom and Kingdom of Poland declared war on Murat and sent a fleet over to Italy. Charles invades Italy beginning of the Hundred Days. Meanwhile, Frimont had ordered a counterattack to try to relieve the garrison in Ferrara. He ordered a corps under the command of Bianchi to advance on Carpi, which was guarded by a brigade under the command of Guglielmo Pepe. Another column was ordered to cut off Pepe's line of retreat. However, Carascosa, who was in command of the Neapolitan troops around Modena, saw the Austrian trap and ordered a retreat to a defensive line behind the Panaro where he was joined by the remainder of his division, which had been evacuated from Reggio Emilia and Modena. But even after Carascosa's retreat, Murat was still in a position to continue the siege at Ferrara. In response, Frimont ordered a corps under the command of General Neipperg to attack his entrenched right flank. On 12 April, after bitter fighting at the Battle of Casaglia, the Neapolitan troops were driven from their entrenched positions. Murat was forced to lift the Siege of Ferrara and retreated back on the road to Bologna. On 14 April, Frimont attempted to force a crossing of the Panaro, but was repelled. However, only two days later, Murat and his army retreated from Bologna, which was quickly retaken by the Austrians. In Tuscany meanwhile, Murat's two Guard Divisions also inexplicably retreated without being harassed in any way by Nugent. By 15 April, the Austrians had retaken Florence and when the news reached Murat, he ordered a general retreat of his main force back to their original headquarters in Ancona. With the road to Florence now clear and the Italian peninsula opening up in front of him, Frimont ordered two corps south to deal with Murat once and for all. Bianchi's corps was ordered to march towards Foligno via Florence in an attempt to threaten the rear of the Neapolitans and to cut off their line of direct retreat, whilst Neipperg's corps was sent into direct pursuit of Murat as he retired to Ancona. ith the war turning in Austria's favour, Frimont was ordered back to Lombardy to oversee the army that was now amassing in preparation for an invasion of France. A large portion of the Austrian force was also recalled, leaving only three Austrian corps totalling around 35,000 men in Italy. Murat, who placed too much faith in his Guard Divisions and believing they would be able to halt the advance of Bianchi and Nugent, retreated slowly, even turning to check the pursuit at the Ronco and Savio rivers. But the Austrian advanced guard caught the retreating Neapolitan force twice by surprise at Cesenatico and Pesaro. Murat hurried his retreat and by late April, his main force had arrived safely in Ancona, where he was reunited with his two Guard Divisions. Meanwhile, Bianchi's corps had made swift progress. Arriving in Florence on 20 April, they had reached their target of Foligno by 26 April and now threatened Murat's line of retreat. Neipperg's corps was still in pursuit and by 29 April, his advanced guard had arrived in Fano, just two days' march away. However, the two Austrian armies were separated and Murat hoped to quickly defeat Bianchi before turning on Neipperg. Much like Napoleon's tactics before Waterloo, Murat sent a division under Carascosa north to stall Neipperg whilst his main force headed west to face Bianchi. Murat originally planned to face Bianchi near the town of Tolentino, but on 29 April, Bianchi's advanced guard succeeded in driving out the small Neapolitan garrison there. Bianchi, having arrived first, then formed a defensive position around the hills to the east of Tolentino. With Neipperg's army approaching to his rear, Murat was forced to give battle at Tolentino on 2 May 1815. After two days of inconclusive fighting, Murat learned that Neipperg had outmanoeuvred and defeated Carascosa at the Battle of Scapezzano and was approaching. Sensing the inevitable, Murat ordered a retreat. The battle had severely damaged the morale of the Neapolitan troops and many senior officers had been casualties in the battle. The battered Neapolitan army fell back in disarray. On 5 May, a joint Anglo-Austrian fleet began a blockade of Ancona, eventually taking the entire garrison of the city as prisoners. By 12 May, Bianchi, who was now in command of both his and Neipperg's corps, had taken the town of L'Aquila along with its castle. The main Austrian army was now marching on Popoli. During this time, General Nugent had continued to advance from Florence. Having arrived in Rome on 30 April, allowing the Pope to return, Nugent advanced towards Ceprano. By mid May, Nugent had intercepted Murat at San Germano (now Cassino). Here, Murat attempted to check Nugent's advance but with the main Austrian force under Bianchi in pursuit, Murat was forced to call off the action on 16 May. Soon afterwards, the Austrian armies united near Calvi and began the march on Naples. Murat was forced to flee to Corsica and later Cannes disguised as a sailor on a Danish ship, after a British fleet blockading Naples destroyed all the Neapolitan gunboats in the harbour. Acceptance of the will of Ivan IV and consequences On his deathbed in 1834, Ivan IV unexpectedly changed his will. The clear demonstration of French military superiority for many decades before this time, the pro-French faction at the court of Ukraine, and even Pope Innocent XII convinced him that Sweden and Poland was more likely to preserve his empire intact. He thus offered the entire empire to the Ivan's second son Pedro, Duke of Right-bank of Ukraine, provided it remained undivided. Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union. If Pedro refused, the throne would be offered to Casimir. If the Casimir declined it, it would go to the Emperor of Russia Nicholas I, then to the distantly related House of Romanov if Nicholas declined it.Kamen, Henry. (2001) Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice, Yale University Press, p. 6. ISBN 0-300-08718-7. On 20 May, Neapolitan Generals Pepe and Carascosa sued for peace and concluded the Treaty of Casalanza with the Austrians, bringing the war to an end. On 23 May, the main Austrian army entered Naples and restored King Ferdinand to the Neapolitan throne. Murat, meanwhile, would attempt to reclaim his kingdom. Coming back from exile, he landed with 28 men at Pizzo, Calabria on 8 October 1815. However, unlike Napoleon months earlier, Murat was not greeted with a warm welcome and was soon captured by Bourbon troops. Five days after he landed at Pizzo, he was executed in the town's castle, exhorting the firing squad to spare his face. This ended the final chapter of the Napoleonic Wars. After Napoleon exiled after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Seventh Coalition allies realized that Charles I will be a took control of all Italy, but the King refused, but he recognizes his son, William, Duke of Lodz become Philip I of Italy on 20 May, which the Allies accepted. Shortly after the end of the war, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were finally united to create the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Although the two kingdoms had been ruled by the same king since 1735, the formal union did not happen until 1816. King Philip I would become King Philip I of the Two Sicilies. Meanwhile, the Austrians consolidated their gains in Northern Italy into the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. Although Murat failed to save his crown, or to start a popular nationalist movement with the Rimini Proclamation, Murat had ignited a debate for Italian unification. Indeed, some consider the Rimini Proclamation as the start of Risorgimento. The intervention of Austria only heightened the fact the Habsburgs were the single most powerful opponent to unification, which would eventually lead to three wars of independence against the Austrians. Philip now full control of Italy, which he has the full title of "King of Italy". Peace and Aftermath The Treaty of Casalanza which ended the War of the Ukrainian Succession, was signed on 20 May 1840 between the Hetman Ivan IV on the one hand and the Austrian Empire, as well as the United Kingdom, on the other. Following the decisive defeat at the Battle of Tolentino and the Battle of San Germano, the Napoleonic King of Naples, Joachim Murat, had fled to Corsica and General Michele Carascosa, who was now the head of the Neapolitan army following Murat's flight, sued for peace. The treaty was signed by Pietro Colletta (who was acting as plenipotentiary to Michele Carascosa), Adam Albert von Neipperg (who was acting as plenipotentiary to the commander-in-chief of the Austrian forces, Frederick Bianchi), and Lord Burghersh (the English minister plenipotentiary in Florence). The terms of the treaty were quite lenient on the defeated Neapolitans. All the Neapolitan generals were allowed to keep their rank and the borders of the Kingdom of Naples remained unchanged. The treaty merely called for the return of the pre-Napoleonic King Ferdinand IV of Naples and Sicily to the Neapolitan throne, the return of all prisoners of war and for all the Neapolitan garrisons to lay down their arms, with the exception of Ancona, Pescara and Gaeta. These three cities were all being blockaded by an Anglo-Austrian fleet and were out of General Carascosa's control. These three garrisons eventually surrendered, although the Siege of Gaeta would last till August, long after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Alliance with Austria Since he become King of Poland, he and his brother, Emperor Francis II become an unbreakable alliance with Austrian Empire. With the Austrians allied with the Polish-Lithuanians since the broke out of the War of the Ukrainian Succession since 1823 and Lithuanian-Polish Civil Rights Movement in 1830. Reign in Poland-Lithuania Accession In beginning of January of 1815, Duke Frederick Augustus I of Saxony went forced to abdication following of Napoleon went to exile, and favor his son, Pavel or his brother, Charles. The throne went to Casimir's brother, he refused and remained Duke of Radzilow. The election of 1826-17 went May 3, which he be Candidate with support from his brother against Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, George III of the United Kingdom, and Frederick Augustus I. The election was 11 months and 15 days. On April 18, Casimir accessed to the throne as Charles Philipp I. In foreign affairs Oscar I was a friend of the principle of nationality. In 1848 he supported Denmark against the Kingdom of Prussia in the First War of Schleswig; placed Swedish and Norwegian troops in cantonments in Funen and North Schleswig (1849–1850); and mediated the Truce of Malmö (26 August 1848). He was also one of the guarantors of the integrity of Denmark (the London Protocol, 8 May 1852). Refusal and Rejected the title of Holy Polish Emperor On 21 December 1804, a few weeks after Napoleon becomes Emperor on 2nd of December. The Polish Parliament asked James Casimir the office of "Holy Polish Emperor", when it was offered to him on the grounds that such a constitution and such an offer were an abridgment of the rights of the princes of the individual Polish states. Which the Polish people never had a polish monarch titled, the Holy Polish Emperor since Michael I the last monarch who hold the title. Even though that the King will or will not refused the title. On six days after deciding the title, King James Casimir rejected the title of Holy Polish Emperor, with the statement; "For the people of the Polish, I was asked for the office of the Holy Polish Emperor by the Parliament, after a week I deciding to reject the offer, because when I was crowned as "King of the Polish" on 1795. The title of Holy Polish Emperor is nice, but I decline the offer." Abdications and later life ) King Charles Philipp I at Schwarzenbergplatz in Vienna.]] Charles abdicated the parts of his empire piecemeal. First he abdicated the thrones of Poland-Lithuania to his son Jan IV Joseph in 1839. Upon Charles's abdication of Poland on 25 July, John was invested with the kingdom (officially "Poland and Lithuania") on 2 October by Pope Julius III. Constitutional changes were initiated in 1840 because the terms which involved the United Kingdom of the Netherlands had to be removed. These constitutional changes also included the introduction of judicial ministerial responsibility. Although the policies remained uncontrolled by parliament, the prerogative was controllable now. The very conservative William could not live with these constitutional changes. In October 1840, he favor abdicated as King of the Netherlands in favor of his elder son, Charles, he fulfilled this intent on 7 October 1840 and his eldest son acceded to the Dutch throne. He was furthermore the Duke of Limburg since 1839. Health issues On 1841, King Charles travel to Berlin in the Kingdom of Prussia and welcomed by the King Frederick William IV. Then King Frederick William IV gived Charles and his royal family, a Kronprinzenpalais (Crown Prince's Palace) which Frederick William doesn't have any issue. Charles have reported that he suffers from pains in the stomach. His doctor told him that he been diagnosed with Stomach cancer, as his health got worse, but he been a fully recovery in fall of 1849 the following year. Illness and death King Charles I's health got worsten by the end of 1842, when he was suffering stomach cancer a few years ago. He ended the War in Egypt on 1852, which Charles was becoming seriously ill in the fall of 1842. He was suffering from a kidney-ailment on January of 1843. However in 1888, he personally presented a gold medal of honor to the lifeboat hero Dorus Rijkers, for saving the lives of 20 people. During the last months, during Charles I's life, he becomes weakened when he visit his brother, Archduke Charles for few days, which Charles returned to Berlin. He also suffered stuttering as he becoming a little stunning towards his last days. After three years after his abdications from 1839 to 1840, Charles died on 12 December 1843, at age of sixty-eight. After his death, the war in Crimean broke out at the time of Charles I's death. Charles I was buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. Legacy In accordance with the 1817 year politics led Karl I Philipp, both as Crown Prince and as King, such a peaceful policy that Netherlands and Poland by his death have not previously had such a long period of peace. as opposed to the other European royal houses can Sweden and Norway under the Karl I Philipp be seen as exceptions with their constitutional limitations of the Royal power, as Karl I that dealt with the realpolitiker."och främst he First was realpolitiker", from the magazine's ' Historia ' loved man ', December 29, 2003 As Commander-in-Chief of the Dutch and Polish Armies, hero of the Dutch, the Austrian Army and the first King of the Netherlands, Charles I's legacy remains among the two or three greatest in Dutch and Polish history. Congressman Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade, famously eulogized Washington, "First in war—first in peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen". As first King of the Netherlands, Charles I's popularity in the Austrian Empire as well in the Kingdom of the Netherlands. And was careful to stress that he was chosen by the Dutch beaches to be King, his position was therefore built on citizens ' free choice. Ekedahl, 2010 p. 11-12 He had read the Montesquieu and was a fan of separation of powers. T:son 1960, Thorvald Höjer s. 125 T:son 1960 Thorvald Höjer, p. 448 in France was Karl I's legacy stained by Napoléons memoirs, the former marskalken, both have had their share of the blame for the disastrous French defeat in Russia and for the sixth coalition victory in the battle of Leipzig in 1813. In Norway was Karl I as a person popular, Francis Sejersted, 2001, p. 50 but his reputation was toned down for the sake of national struggle during and after the Union with Sweden. He was the role of the three wars; the Forty Years' War, Lithuanian-Polish Civil Rights Movement and the War of the Ukrainian Succession. His popularity in Netherlands was amazing and indeed the first ruler of the dutch kingdom. Criticism of Charles I Throughout his reign, King Charles I received a some criticism. In the Netherlands, Godert van der Capellen, a Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies critized the King for horrible king. But Capellen was wrong that King Charles were in fact a good king. He also was getting criticized on the 1830 loss revolution with Belgium when King Leopold gained independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. As King, was hit from both the right and the left. He came under attack for his supposed anti-business policies, for being a "warmonger", for being a "Fascist" and for being too friendly to King Leopold I and much criticism of Charles centered on fears that he was heading toward an worst monarch like King Charles VI of France. In the Poland-Lithuania, King Charles was also hard criticized that he "overthrowing" Duke Frederick Augustus I by re-established monarchy in 1817 when he was easily elected in 1816. Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized his policies with his sons and successors, John IV Joseph of Poland and Dutch King Charles II defending their deceased father, which that lead to the Polish–Lithuanian Civil War, which last two years. Ancestry Issue With his wife Wilhelmina, King Charles I had six children: *''Karl'' Frederik George Lodewijk (b. The Hague, 6 December 1792 – d. Tilburg, 17 March 1849) later King Charles II of the Netherlands from 1840. Married Russian Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna. *Stillborn son (Hampton Court, Palace, Middlesex, 18 August 1795). *[[Prince Frederick of the Netherlands|Willem Frederik Karel]] (b. Berlin, 28 February 1797 – d. Wassenaar, 8 September 1881). *[[Princess Pauline of Orange-Nassau|Wilhelmina Frederika Louise Pauline Charlotte]] (b. Berlin, 1 March 1800 – d. Freienwalde, 22 December 1806). *Stillborn son (Berlin, 30 August 1806). *[[Princess Marianne of the Netherlands|Wilhelmina Frederika Louise Charlotte Marianne]] (b. Berlin, 9 May 1810 – d. Schloss Reinhartshausen bei Erbach, 29 May 1883), married on 14 September 1830 with Prince Albert of Prussia. They divorced in 1849. Titles, styles, and arms Titles and styles *'27 August 1775 – 7 January 1795:' His Royal Highness Karl Philipp *'7 January 1795 – 22 February 1805:' His Royal Highness Karl Philipp, Crown Prince of Schwarzenberg *'9 April 1806 – 16 March 1815:' His Serene Highness Karl I Philipp, Sovereign Prince of the United Netherlands *'16 March 1815 – 7 October 1840:' His Majesty The King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg *'19 February 1817 – 27 January 1839:' His Majesty King Charles Philipp I, King of Poland *'7 October 1840 – 15 October 1843:' His Majesty King Charles I In the Netherlands, King Charles I used the official style. Charles I, by the grace of God, King of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, Marquis of Veere and Flushing, Count of Katzenelnbogen, Vianden, Diez, Spiegelberg, Buren, Leerdam and Culemborg, Burgrave of Antwerp, Baron of Breda, Diest, Beilstein, the town of Grave and the lands of Cuyk, IJsselstein, Cranendonk, Eindhoven, Liesveld, Herstal, Warneton, Arlay and Nozeroy, Hereditary and Free Lord of Ameland, Lord of Borculo, Bredevoort, Lichtenvoorde, Het Loo, Geertruidenberg, Clundert, Zevenbergen, Hooge and Lage Zwaluwe, Naaldwijk, Polanen, St Maartensdijk, Soest, Baarn, Ter Eem, Willemstad, Steenbergen, Montfort, St Vith, Bütgenbach, Dasburg, Niervaart, Turnhout and Besançon.." In Poland-Lithuania, Charles Philipp I used the official style King Charles Philipp I, By the Grace of God, King of Poland, Lithuania, and Defender of the Faith, etc. Arms In popular culture Charles XIV and I has been featured as an historical figure in many films about the era of the Ancien Régime, especially those depicting the lives of Marie Antoinette and Madame du Barry. See also * Charlottenburg Palace – Residence of King Charles I after his abdication in 1840. * List of monarchs of the Netherlands * House of Habsburg-Lorraine Notes Bibliography * Ashley, Maurice P. Louis XIV And The Greatness Of France (1965) excerpt and text search * Beik, William. Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents (2000) excerpt and text search * Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration." Past & Present 2005 (188): 195–224. online at [[Project MUSE] ] * Bluche, François, Louis XIV, (Franklin Watts, 1990) * * Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 * Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV (1994) excerpt and text search * Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age Of Louis XIV (1908), old, solid articles by scholars; complete text online * Campbell, Peter Robert. Louis XIV, 1661–1715 (London, 1993) * Church, William F., ed. The Greatness of Louis XIV. (1972). * Cowart, Georgia J. The Triumph of Pleasure: Louis XIV and the Politics of Spectacle (U of Chicago Press, 2008) 299 pp; focus on opera and ballet * Cronin, Vincent. Louis XIV. London: HarperCollins, 1996 (ISBN 0002720728) * Dunlop, Ian. Louis XIV (2000), 512pp excerpt and text search * Engerand, Fernand, editor (1899). Inventaire des tableaux du Roy rédigé en 1709 et 1710 par Nicolas Bailly. Paris: Ernest Leroux. Copy at Gallica. * Erlanger, Philippe, Louis XIV (Praeger 1970) * Fraser, Antonia. Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-297-82997-1); New York: Nan A. Talese, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-50984-7) * Goubert, Pierre. Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen (1972), social history from Annales School * Jones, Colin. The Great Nation: France from Louis XIV to Napoleon (1715–1799) (2002) * Lewis, W. H. The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV (1953) excerpt and text search; also online complete edition * Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Ancien Régime: A History of France 1610–1774 (1999), survey by leader of the Annales School excerpt and text search * Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714 (1999) excerpt and text search * Mitford, Nancy. The Sun King (1995), popular excerpt and text search * Nolan, Cathal J. Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization . (2008) 607pp; over 1000 entries; ISBN 978-0-313-33046-9 * Rowlands, Guy. The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661–1701 (2002) online edition * Rubin, David Lee, ed. Sun King: The Ascendancy of French Culture during the Reign of Louis XIV. Washington: Folger Books and Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1992. * Rule, John C., Louis XIV and the craft of kingship 1969. * Shennan, J. H. Louis XIV (1993) online edition * Thompson, Ian. The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 ISBN 1-58234-631-3 * Treasure, Geoffrey. Louis XIV (London, 2001). * Wilkinson, Rich. Louis XIV (2007) * Wolf, John B. Louis XIV (1968), the standard scholarly biography online edition External links * Media related to Charles I of the Netherlands at Category. 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